[Congenital amusia and its effects on non-musical skills]. / Amusia congénita y sus efectos en habilidades no musicales.

INTRODUCTION: Congenital amusia is a specific condition in which the individual is unable to recognise tonal variations in a piece of musical. This cannot be explained by a previous brain injury, hearing loss, cognitive deficit, socio-affective disorder or lack of environmental stimulation. The current estimated prevalence is 1.5% of the world population, with a significant genetic component among those who suffer from it. It has been claimed that certain cognitive abilities in the emotional, spatial and language fields may be affected in people with amusia. AIM: To review the literature describing the effects on non-musical skills that may coexist in individuals with congenital amusia. DEVELOPMENT: Several neuroimaging studies have observed morphological and functional changes in the temporal lobe, as well as in the white matter connections between the superior temporal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus. From these affected regions, there may be a deficit in cognitive skills related to adjacent areas. CONCLUSIONS: Congenital amusia has been associated with poor performance in different non-musical cognitive skills, such as visuospatial processing, language processing, reading difficulties, face recognition and emotional aspects.

TITLE: Amusia congénita y sus efectos en habilidades no musicales.Introducción. La amusia congénita es una condición específica en la que el individuo afectado es incapaz de reconocer variaciones tonales en las piezas musicales. Esto no puede explicarse por una lesión encefálica previa, una pérdida auditiva, un déficit cognitivo, un trastorno socioafectivo o una falta de estimulación ambiental. Actualmente se estima una prevalencia del 1,5% de la población mundial, con un importante componente genético entre los afectados. Se ha descrito que en las personas con amusia puede haber afectación de ciertas habilidades cognitivas en el campo emocional, espacial y del lenguaje. Objetivo. Revisar la bibliografía donde se describen los efectos en las habilidades no musicales que pueden coexistir en individuos con amusia congénita. Desarrollo. Varios estudios de neuroimagen han permitido observar cambios morfológicos y funcionales en el lóbulo temporal, así como en las conexiones de la sustancia blanca entre el giro temporal superior y el giro frontal inferior. Partiendo de estas regiones afectadas, podría existir un déficit en habilidades cognitivas relacionadas con áreas adyacentes. Conclusiones. La amusia congénita se ha relacionado con un pobre desempeño en diferentes habilidades cognitivas no musicales, como el procesamiento visuoespacial, el procesamiento del lenguaje, alteraciones de la lectura, el reconocimiento de rostros y aspectos emocionales.

Amusia congénita y sus efectos en habilidades no musicales / Congenital amusia and its effects on non-musical skills

INTRODUCCIÓN: La amusia congénita es una condición específica en la que el individuo afectado es incapaz de reconocer variaciones tonales en las piezas musicales. Esto no puede explicarse por una lesión encefálica previa, una pérdida auditiva, un déficit cognitivo, un trastorno socioafectivo o una falta de estimulación ambiental. Actualmente se estima una prevalencia del 1,5% de la población mundial, con un importante componente genético entre los afectados. Se ha descrito que en las personas con amusia puede haber afectación de ciertas habilidades cognitivas en el campo emocional, espacial y del lenguaje. OBJETIVO: Revisar la bibliografía donde se describen los efectos en las habilidades no musicales que pueden coexistir en individuos con amusia congénita. DESARROLLO: Varios estudios de neuroimagen han permitido observar cambios morfológicos y funcionales en el lóbulo temporal, así como en las conexiones de la sustancia blanca entre el giro temporal superior y el giro frontal inferior. Partiendo de estas regiones afectadas, podría existir un déficit en habilidades cognitivas relacionadas con áreas adyacentes. CONCLUSIONES: La amusia congénita se ha relacionado con un pobre desempeño en diferentes habilidades cognitivas no musicales, como el procesamiento visuoespacial, el procesamiento del lenguaje, alteraciones de la lectura, el reconocimiento de rostros y aspectos emocionales

INTRODUCTION: Congenital amusia is a specific condition in which the individual is unable to recognise tonal variations in a piece of musical. This cannot be explained by a previous brain injury, hearing loss, cognitive deficit, socio-affective disorder or lack of environmental stimulation. The current estimated prevalence is 1.5% of the world population, with a significant genetic component among those who suffer from it. It has been claimed that certain cognitive abilities in the emotional, spatial and language fields may be affected in people with amusia. AIM: To review the literature describing the effects on non-musical skills that may coexist in individuals with congenital amusia. DEVELOPMENT: Several neuroimaging studies have observed morphological and functional changes in the temporal lobe, as well as in the white matter connections between the superior temporal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus. From these affected regions, there may be a deficit in cognitive skills related to adjacent areas. CONCLUSIONS: Congenital amusia has been associated with poor performance in different non-musical cognitive skills, such as visuospatial processing, language processing, reading difficulties, face recognition and emotional aspects

Caracterización del desarrollo en niños con síndrome de Down de 5-12 años de edad en Bogotá (Colombia) / Developmental characteristics in children with Down syndrome from ages 5 to 12 in Bogotá, Colombia

Introducción: El procesamiento cognitivo y las habilidades de aprendizaje son ampliamente variables en personas con síndrome de Down (SD). La progresión de las habilidades del desarrollo se comporta de una manera diferente a como lo hace en los niños con un desarrollo típico. Por tanto, la caracterización y comprensión de los niños con SD es importante para elaborar estrategias de intervención y programas de seguimiento. Objetivos: Establecer un perfil de desarrollo cognitivo en niños con SD. Materiales y métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo y transversal de 93 niños de 5-12 años de edad, de 3 instituciones de salud en Bogotá (Colombia). Para la evaluación, se usaron el Inventario de Desarrollo de Battelle (BDI-2) y la Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil (ENI). El comité de ética institucional aprobó el estudio. Resultados: Los cocientes de desarrollo obtenidos en los niños con SD estuvieron por debajo de los datos normativos que se presentan en los niños con un desarrollo típico en todas las áreas evaluadas. Los perfiles neurocognitivos mostraron una tendencia ascendente discreta, en función de la edad. Las áreas que se desarrollaron más fuertemente fueron el comportamiento adaptativo, las habilidades sociales y el control motor grueso. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos permitieron establecer una curva que muestra la progresión de las habilidades de aprendizaje que presentan los niños con SD. Además, las áreas específicas en que los niños se desempeñan de una manera más eficiente, y aquellas en las que tienen importantes fallos o dificultades, se ilustran en gráficos de forma independiente; a saber, el control motor grueso y las habilidades sociales son áreas en que los niños con SD muestran habilidades significativas, mientras que la comunicación, el lenguaje y el procesamiento cognitivo están menos desarrollados

Introduction: Cognitive processing and learning skills are widely variable amongst individuals with Down syndrome (DS). The achievement of developmental milestones behaves in a different way than it does in children with typically development. Thus, the characterization and understanding of children with DS is important to elaborate intervention strategies and follow-up programs. Objectives: To establish a cognitive developmental profile in children with DS. Materials and Methods: Observational, descriptive, cross-sectional study of 93 children between the ages of 5 and 12, among three health institutions in Bogotá (Colombia). For assessment, the Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI-2) and the Child Neuropsychological Evaluation (ENI) were used. The institutional review board approved the study. Results: Developmental quotients were below than normative data for typically developed children in all evaluated domains. The neurocognitive profiles exhibited a discretely, age dependent, ascendant tendency, the areas that were more strongly developed were adaptive behavior, social skills and gross motor control. Conclusions: The obtained results allowed to design a curve that comprehensively shows the skills in learning that children with DS show. Furthermore, it showed the specific areas in which children perform in a more efficient manner, and those in which they have major setbacks or pitfalls. Namely, gross motor control and social skills, are areas in which children with DS have significant skills, whilst communication, language and cognitive processing are less developed

Zika virus epidemiology: from Uganda to world pandemic, an update.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is an emergent worldwide public health problem. Historically, 84 countries have reported vector-borne ZIKV transmission, 61 of which report on-going transmission. It is a Flavivirus transmitted through arthropods belonging to the Aedes genus. Since 2015, ZIKV infections have increased dramatically; with 1.3 million people infected during 2015 in Brazil alone. This paper's objective is to highlight the conjectural epidemiological points of the virus' dissemination. The digital archives Pubmed, MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane were searched for papers that assessed aspects of ZIKV transmission and epidemiology. The first isolation occurred in Uganda in 1947. Since then, important outbreaks were documented globally. Consequently, an emergent public health problem arose from a rapidly increasing incidence and its association with the development of neurological diseases such as microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Key factors in the successful containment of outbreaks include surveillance of mosquitos in the neighbourhood, an early mosquito control treatment, an assertive information campaign, and the involvement of the local population and healthcare workers. As such, while ZIKV seems to be spreading globally in a similar manner to other arboviruses, such as Dengue and Chikungunya viruses, it can also be rapidly contained due to the pre-existing availability of necessary resources and regulatory tools as control measures. This review aims to provide a description of those characteristics of ZIKV infection that may be useful in the construction of effective outbreak control strategies.

Alteraciones auditivas y desarrollo del lenguaje en niños con síndrome de Down: revisión sistemática de la literatura / Auditory alterations and language development in children with Down syndrome: Systematic review

Introducción: El síndrome de Down (SD) es la anormalidad cromosómica más frecuente; hasta dos tercios de los niños con SD presenta una posible pérdida auditiva que puede comprometer el desarrollo del lenguaje. El objetivo de esta revisión es describir la prevalencia de la pérdida auditiva en niños con SD, los factores de riesgo y su relación con el desarrollo del lenguaje. Metodología: Revisión sistemática de la literatura. Se identificaron 69 artículos a través de las bases de datos PubMed, Science Direct y Scopus. En función de los criterios de inclusión, se escogieron 35 artículos. Resultados: La prevalencia de pérdida auditiva en niños con SD oscila entre el 34 y el 36%. La alteración de tipo conductivo asociada a otitis media con efusión y un canal auditivo estrecho son los factores de riesgo más frecuentes. La implantación de tubos de timpanostomía demuestra unos índices de curación de la otitis media y una mejoría de la agudeza auditiva significativamente menores que en la población general. Otro tipo de implantes, como el BAHA (bone anchored hearing aids) y el coclear, muestran beneficios sobre la calidad de vida y el desempeño físico y social; sin embargo, los estudios realizados al respecto adolecen de una muestra limitada que no permite sacar conclusiones. Finalmente, no existe evidencia de una relación directa entre la pérdida auditiva y el desarrollo del lenguaje en niños con SD. Conclusiones: Se debe realizar un cribado auditivo en el periodo neonatal y un seguimiento con un diagnóstico adecuado de las in-fecciones del oído durante toda la infancia en los niños con SD, lo que permitiría establecer un tratamiento apropiado y disminuir las posibles alteraciones del lenguaje (AU)

Introduction: Down syndrome (DS) is the most frequent chromosomal abnormality; nearly two-thirds of children with DS may develop hearing loss and delayed or abnormal language development. The aim of this review was to describe the frequency of hearing loss in children with DS, its relationship with language development and risk factors for its clinical presentation. Methodology: Systematic review of literature. 69 articles were identified through database searching on PubMed and Scopus. 35 articles met selection and inclusion criteria. Results: The prevalence of hearing loss in children with DS ranges between 34% and 36%. Conductive hearing loss is frequently as-sociated with effusive otitis media, and a narrow auditory canal. The implantation of tympanostomy tubes showed lower success rates in otitis media and improvement of hearing in comparison to healthy children. Other type of hearing aids such as BAHA (bone an-chored hearing aids) and cochlear implants have shown possible benefits in quality of life, physical and social performance. Finally, there is no evidence of a direct relation between hearing loss or other disabilities in language development in these children. Conclusions: Hearing screening should be done in the neonatal period and follow-up with a timely diagnosis of childhood ear infections in children with DS in order to provide accurate and timely interventions (AU)

Trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad: de padres a hijos / Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: from parents to children

Introducción. En el trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH), la heredabilidad ha sido reconocida en múltiples estudios. En este sentido, se ha observado una mayor frecuencia del trastorno en niños con familiares afectados. El objetivo fue determinar la asociación entre la presencia de síntomas de TDAH en niños escolares de 5 instituciones educativas de Bogotá y el antecedente de síntomas de TDAH en sus padres utilizando el cuestionario de Wender-Utah. Metodología. Estudio de casos y controles seleccionados de acuerdo con los criterios DSM-IV para TDAH, la escala multifuncional de la conducta (BASC) para padres y maestros y WISC-IV para descartar déficit cognitivo. A los padres se les aplicó un cuestionario de Wender-Utah para identificar de manera retrospectiva síntomas de TDAH en su infancia. Un score de 36 fue tomado como punto de corte. Resultados. De 202 niños disponibles, 117 fueron casos y 85 controles. Un 16% de 175 madres y un 20,6% de 141 padres tuvieron antecedentes positivos para síntomas de TDAH en la infancia. La presencia de síntomas en alguno de los progenitores, principalmente en la madre, es un factor de riesgo significativo para la presencia de TDAH en los niños y esta relación persiste si se controla por diferentes variables. Si los 2 progenitores tienen el cuadro, existe una tendencia a que el riesgo aumente. Conclusión. A pesar de que el TDAH se ha asociado a un componente genético, otros factores del entorno pueden estar involucrados en la génesis del trastorno (AU)

Introduction. Multiple studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have recognised a heritability factor in that a higher frequency of the disorder is observed in children with an affected relative. Our aim was to determine the association between ADHD symptoms in young children enrolled in five schools in Bogota and a history of ADHD symptoms in their parents using the Wender-Utah Rating Scale. Methodology. Case-control study of participants selected according to DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC) completed by parents and teachers; the WISC-IV scale was used to exclude children with cognitive deficit. Parents completed the Wender-Utah Rating Scale to retrospectively identify any ADHD symptoms in childhood. A score of 36 was used as a cutoff point. Results. The study included 202 children: 117 cases and 85 controls. A positive history of ADHD symptoms in childhood was identified for 16% of 175 mothers and 20.6% of 141 fathers. The presence of symptoms in either parent, especially the mother, constitutes a significant risk factor for ADHD in children and this relationship persists after controlling for different variables. If both parents have the disorder, the risk tends to increase. Conclusion. Although ADHD has been linked to a genetic component, other environmental factors may be involved in the disorder (AU)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: From parents to children. / Trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad: de padres a hijos.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have recognised a heritability factor in that a higher frequency of the disorder is observed in children with an affected relative. Our aim was to determine the association between ADHD symptoms in young children enrolled in five schools in Bogota and a history of ADHD symptoms in their parents using the Wender-Utah Rating Scale. METHODOLOGY: Case-control study of participants selected according to DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC) completed by parents and teachers; the WISC-IV scale was used to exclude children with cognitive deficit. Parents completed the Wender-Utah Rating Scale to retrospectively identify any ADHD symptoms in childhood. A score of 36 was used as a cutoff point. RESULTS: The study included 202 children: 117 cases and 85 controls. A positive history of ADHD symptoms in childhood was identified for 16% of 175 mothers and 20.6% of 141 fathers. The presence of symptoms in either parent, especially the mother, constitutes a significant risk factor for ADHD in children and this relationship persists after controlling for different variables. If both parents have the disorder, the risk tends to increase. CONCLUSION: Although ADHD has been linked to a genetic component, other environmental factors may be involved in the disorder.

Evidencia de asociación entre el genotipo 10/10 de DAT1 y endofenotipos del trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad / Evidence of an association between 10/10 genotype of DAT1 and endophenotypes of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Introducción: La variancia genética del trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) es determinante para el fenotipo. La repetición en tándem en número variable (VNTR) de 40 pares de bases (pb) en la región no traducida 3’ (UTR) del gen DAT1 se ha asociado ala susceptibilidad de presentar TDAH debido al incremento de expresión del transportador de dopamina. Objetivo: Determinar la asociación entre el VNTR del DAT1 y el fenotipo y/o endofenotipos del TDAH en una muestra de niños de 6 a 15 años de la ciudad de Bogotá. Sujetos y métodos: Se seleccionó a 73 pacientes con TDAH y 54 controles. En todos los individuos se realizó una prueba de WISC y se valoraron las funciones ejecutivas. Mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa se amplificó el VNTR de DAT1. Se establecieron estadísticos genético-poblacionales, análisis de asociación y correlación entre las pruebas neuropsicológicas y el genotipo. Resultados: El polimorfismo del DAT1 no mostró asociación con TDAH (p = 0,85). Sin embargo, el genotipo 10/10 evidenció asociación con el índice de velocidad de procesamiento (p < 0,05). En el subtipo hiperactividad hubo correlación genotípica con subpruebas de la función ejecutiva (flexibilidad cognitiva) (p ≤ 0,01). En el subgrupo mixto, el genotipo 10/10 se asoció al índice de comprensión verbal del WISC (p < 0,05). Conclusiones: Se encontró una correlación entre el genotipo del VNTR de DAT1 con la subprueba «índice de velocidad de procesamiento» del WISC y la subprueba «flexibilidad cognitiva» de la función ejecutiva. Este es el primer reporte que evalúa el gen DAT1 en población colombiana con TDAH

Introduction: Genetic variance of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a strong determinant of this disorder. The 40 base pairs (bp) variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) located in the 3’ untranslated region (UTR) of DAT1 gene increases the expression of the dopamine transporter. Therefore, DAT1 has been associated with susceptibility to ADHD. Objective: To determine the association between the VNTR of DAT1 and the phenotype of ADHD or its endophenotypes in a sample of children aged between 6 and 15 years from Bogotá. Subjects and methods: We selected 73 patients with ADHD and 54 controls. WISC test was applied in all subjects and executive functions were assessed. The VNTR of DAT1 was polymerase chain reaction-amplified. Data regarding population genetics and statistical analysis were obtained. Correlation and association tests between genotype and neuropsychological testing were performed. Results: The DAT1 polymorphism was not associated with ADHD (P=.85). Nevertheless, the 10/10 genotype was found to be correlated with the processing speed index (P<.05). In the hyperactivity subtype, there was a genotypic correlation with some subtests of executive function (cognitive flexibility) (P≤.01). In the combined subtype, the 10/10 genotype was associated with verbal comprehension index of WISC (P<.05). Conclusions: A correlation was found between DAT1 VNTR and the subtest 'processing speed index' of WISC and the subtest 'cognitive flexibility' of executive functions. To our knowledge, this is the first report to assess DAT1 gene in a Colombian population

Aptitudes de aprendizaje y desempeño escolar en niños y jóvenes con epilepsia ausencia / Learning skills and academic performance in children and adolescents with absence epilepsy

Introducción: Aunque se describen desórdenes cognitivos y trastornos del aprendizaje en pacientes que presentan epilepsia, son pocos los trabajos que estudian trastornos específicos como la epilepsia ausencia. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar las características escolares y las aptitudes del aprendizaje en niños y jóvenes que presentan epilepsia ausencia. Métodos: Investigación observacional analítica de casos y controles. Los casos fueron escogidos en la consulta de la Liga Central contra la Epilepsia de Bogotá. Los controles se seleccionaron de un colegio privado y fueron pareados con los casos por edad, grado escolar y sexo. Se evaluaron la historia clínica, la frecuencia de las crisis, el tratamiento farmacológico, el desempeño académico. Las aptitudes escolares se estudiaron por medio de la Batería de Aptitudes Diferenciales y Generales (BADyG). Los datos fueron analizados por medio del test T de Student. Resultados: La muestra estuvo conformada por 19 casos y 19 controles entre los 7 y 16 años. Quince pacientes se encontraban controlados, todos habían recibido medicación antiepiléptica y el 78,9% se encontraba con tratamiento activo. Aunque los casos presentaron mayores fallas académicas, más incidencia en pérdidas de grado y mayores intervenciones terapéuticas que los controles, no hubo diferencias significativas. Igualmente no hubo diferencias en la prueba de BADyG, salvo en la subprueba de memoria inmediata en la que los casos tuvieron resultados superiores (p = 0,0006). Conclusión: Los niños con epilepsia ausencia tratados farmacológicamente y controlados en lo que se refiere a crisis tienen las aptitudes y competencias académicas que corresponden normalmente a su edad

Introduction: Although cognitive and learning disorders have been described in patients with epilepsy, very few studies focus on specific disorders such as absence epilepsy. The aim of this study was to evaluate learning skills and academic performance in children and adolescents with absence epilepsy. Methods: Observational case-control study. Cases were chosen from the Central League against Epilepsy's clinic in Bogotá, Colombia. Controls were selected from a private school and matched with cases by age, school year, and sex. Medical history, seizure frequency, antiepileptic treatment, and academic performance were assessed. Academic abilities were tested with Batería de Aptitudes Diferenciales y Generales (BADyG) (a Spanish-language test of differential and general aptitudes). Data were analysed using Student t-test. Results: The sample consisted of 19 cases and 19 controls aged between 7 and 16. In 15 patients, seizures were controlled; all patients had received antiepileptic medication at some point and 78.9% were actively being treated. Although cases had higher rates of academic failure, a greater incidence of grade retention, and more therapeutic interventions than controls, these differences were not significant. Similarly, there were no significant differences on the BADyG test, except for the immediate memory subcategory on which cases scored higher than controls (P = .0006). Conclusion: Children treated pharmacologically for absence epilepsy, whose seizures are controlled, have normal academic abilities and skills for their age

Evidence of an association between 10/10 genotype of DAT1 and endophenotypes of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Genetic variance of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a strong determinant of this disorder. The 40 base pairs (bp) variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) located in the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of DAT1 gene increases the expression of the dopamine transporter. Therefore, DAT1 has been associated with susceptibility to ADHD. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between the VNTR of DAT1 and the phenotype of ADHD or its endophenotypes in a sample of children aged between 6 and 15 years from Bogotá. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We selected 73 patients with ADHD and 54 controls. WISC test was applied in all subjects and executive functions were assessed. The VNTR of DAT1 was polymerase chain reaction-amplified. Data regarding population genetics and statistical analysis were obtained. Correlation and association tests between genotype and neuropsychological testing were performed. RESULTS: The DAT1 polymorphism was not associated with ADHD (P=.85). Nevertheless, the 10/10 genotype was found to be correlated with the processing speed index (P<.05). In the hyperactivity subtype, there was a genotypic correlation with some subtests of executive function (cognitive flexibility) (P≤.01). In the combined subtype, the 10/10 genotype was associated with verbal comprehension index of WISC (P<.05). CONCLUSIONS: A correlation was found between DAT1 VNTR and the subtest "processing speed index" of WISC and the subtest "cognitive flexibility" of executive functions. To our knowledge, this is the first report to assess DAT1 gene in a Colombian population.

Learning skills and academic performance in children and adolescents with absence epilepsy.

INTRODUCTION: Although cognitive and learning disorders have been described in patients with epilepsy, very few studies focus on specific disorders such as absence epilepsy. The aim of this study was to evaluate learning skills and academic performance in children and adolescents with absence epilepsy. METHODS: Observational case-control study. Cases were chosen from the Central League against Epilepsy's clinic in Bogotá, Colombia. Controls were selected from a private school and matched with cases by age, school year, and sex. Medical history, seizure frequency, antiepileptic treatment, and academic performance were assessed. Academic abilities were tested with Batería de Aptitudes Diferenciales y Generales (BADyG) (a Spanish-language test of differential and general aptitudes). Data were analysed using Student t-test. RESULTS: The sample consisted of 19 cases and 19 controls aged between 7 and 16. In 15 patients, seizures were controlled; all patients had received antiepileptic medication at some point and 78.9% were actively being treated. Although cases had higher rates of academic failure, a greater incidence of grade retention, and more therapeutic interventions than controls, these differences were not significant. Similarly, there were no significant differences on the BADyG test, except for the immediate memory subcategory on which cases scored higher than controls (P=.0006). CONCLUSION: Children treated pharmacologically for absence epilepsy, whose seizures are controlled, have normal academic abilities and skills for their age.

Evaluación de la función ejecutiva en una población escolar con síntomas de déficit de atención e hiperactividad / Evaluating executive function in schoolchildren with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Objetivo: Determinar las alteraciones de las funciones ejecutivas (FE) en niños con trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH). Sujetos y métodos: Se realizó un estudio de casos y controles con una muestra de estudiantes de colegios de Bogotá, Colombia, pertenecientes a los estratos socioeconómicos bajos. El diagnóstico de TDAH se realizó con la lista de chequeo del DSM IV y la escala multidimensional de BASC. Se descartaron los niños que presentaban trastornos cognitivos. Se evaluó el desempeño en 6 medidas de funciones ejecutivas. Se realizaron un análisis bivariado entre variables, un estudio multivariado controlado por sexo y edad, y una regresión logística condicional. Resultados: Se estudió a 119 niños con síntomas de TDAH y 85 controles con edades comprendidas entre 6 y 13 años. Cuando se controlaron por sexo, edad y tipo de colegio, los niños con TDAH tuvieron un mayor compromiso que los controles en las medidas de FE correspondientes a fluidez verbal y gráfica, figura compleja de Rey-Osterrieth y flexibilidad cognitiva. Cuando se compararon los subgrupos de TDAH, no hubo diferencias entre el grupo mixto con el general. Los casos con inatención sola e hiperactividad-impulsividad sola presentaron dificultades en fluidez gráfica. Conclusiones: Los niños con síntomas de TDAH presentan mayores problemas en medidas de las FE especialmente en planeación, inhibición, memoria de trabajo y control cognitivo. Parece existir posiblemente una heterogeneidad entre el trastorno de las FE respecto del sexo y la edad (AU)

Objective: To identify impairment of executive functions (EF) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Subjects and methods: A case-control study was performed on a sample of schoolchildren with low socioeconomic levels in Bogota, Colombia. ADHD was diagnosed using the DSM IV checklist and the Behavior Assessment System for Children scale. Children with cognitive deficits were excluded. We evaluated scores from six measurements of executive function (EF). We conducted a bivariate statistical analysis to compare the variables, a multivariate study controlled by sex and age, and a logistic regression analysis. Results: The study sample included 119 children with ADHD and 85 controls, all aged between 6 and 12 years. Controlling by sex, age, and type of school showed that EF measurements in children with ADHD were significantly more impaired than in controls, especially for measurements of verbal and graphic fluency, Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure, and cognitive flexibility. Comparison of ADHD subgroups showed that results in children with multiple deficits were similar to those in the global ADHD group. Graphic fluency impairment was the sole impairment in cases with only attention deficit or only hyperactivity-impulsivity manifestations. Conclusions: EF measures in children with ADHD revealed more problems, particularly those having to do within planning, inhibition, working memory and cognitive control. Age and sex may affect the degree of EF impairment (AU)

Evaluating executive function in schoolchildren with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To identify impairment of executive functions (EF) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A case-control study was performed on a sample of schoolchildren with low socioeconomic levels in Bogota, Colombia. ADHD was diagnosed using the DSM IV checklist and the Behavior Assessment System for Children scale. Children with cognitive deficits were excluded. We evaluated scores from six measurements of executive function (EF). We conducted a bivariate statistical analysis to compare the variables, a multivariate study controlled by sex and age, and a logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: The study sample included 119 children with ADHD and 85 controls, all aged between 6 and 12 years. Controlling by sex, age, and type of school showed that EF measurements in children with ADHD were significantly more impaired than in controls, especially for measurements of verbal and graphic fluency, Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure, and cognitive flexibility. Comparison of ADHD subgroups showed that results in children with multiple deficits were similar to those in the global ADHD group. Graphic fluency impairment was the sole impairment in cases with only attention deficit or only hyperactivity-impulsivity manifestations. CONCLUSIONS: EF measures in children with ADHD revealed more problems, particularly those having to do within planning, inhibition, working memory and cognitive control. Age and sex may affect the degree of EF impairment.

Caracterización de niños y adolescentes con trastornos del espectro autista en una institución de Bogotá, Colombia / Profile of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders in an institution in Bogota, Colombia

Objetivo: Caracterizar la población de niños y adolescentes con diagnóstico de trastornos del espectro autista (TEA) en un centro de atención integral en Bogotá Colombia. Material y métodos: Estudio descriptivo-correlacional, de la población de pacientes que han asistido al centro desde el año 2003 hasta el 2009. Se evaluaron los aspectos demográficos y clínicos, y se realizó una correlación entre las variables con el diagnóstico y la severidad para la búsqueda de factores de riesgo.Resultados: Se estudió a 138 pacientes. La edad promedio de inicio fue a los 21 meses y el diagnóstico a los 45. Hubo predominancia masculina (6,15:1). El diagnóstico mas frecuente fue síndrome autista (83%), seguido por trastorno generalizado del desarrollo no determinado (17%). No se encontraron antecedentes importantes en la familia, durante el embarazo ni en el periodo neonatal. El desarrollo motor durante el primer año fue normal mientras que el desarrollo de la comunicación verbal se encontró comprometido. Los signos específicos de TEA como el trastorno en referencia a sí mismo, comunicación, habla espontánea, comprensión verbal, atención, imitación, utilización de objetos, autocuidado y juego simbólico se relacionaron significativamente con la severidad del cuadro.Conclusiones: El diagnostico de los TEA continúa siendo tardío en nuestra población y generalmente luego de la remisión de personal ajeno a la salud. Las alteraciones más importantes se encuentran en la comunicación y en la relación con los pares. En el estudio no se evidenciaron factores de riesgo que pudieran estar asociados (AU)

To determine the profile of children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in a comprehensive care centre in Bogota, Colombia. Material and methods: A descriptive-correlational study with a sample of patients who had attended the institution from 2003 to 2009. Demographic and clinical aspects were evaluated and a correlation between the diagnosis and severity being analysed in search for risk factors. Results: A total of138 patients were studied. The average age of onset was 21 months, and diagnosis had been made at 45 months. There was a male predominance (6.15:1). The predominant diagnosis was autistic syndrome (83%), followed by pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (17%). There was no pathological background in the family history, during pregnancy or during the neonatal period. Motor development during the first year was normal but acquisition of language skills was compromised. The specific signs of ASD as regards the disorder in itself, communication skills, spontaneous speech, verbal comprehension, attention, imitation, use of objects, self-care and symbolic play were significantly related to the severity of the disease. Conclusions: Diagnosis of ASD is still delayed in our population and usually after referral from someone other than a health professional. The most important problems were found in communication skills and relationships with peers. The study did not show significant associated risk factors (AU)

[Profile of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders in an institution in Bogota, Colombia]. / Caracterización de niños y adolescentes con trastornos del espectro autista en una institución de Bogotá, Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the profile of children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in a comprehensive care centre in Bogota, Colombia. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A descriptive-correlational study with a sample of patients who had attended the institution from 2003 to 2009. Demographic and clinical aspects were evaluated and a correlation between the diagnosis and severity being analysed in search for risk factors. RESULTS: A total of 138 patients were studied. The average age of onset was 21 months, and diagnosis had been made at 45 months. There was a male predominance (6.15:1). The predominant diagnosis was autistic syndrome (83%), followed by pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (17%). There was no pathological background in the family history, during pregnancy or during the neonatal period. Motor development during the first year was normal but acquisition of language skills was compromised. The specific signs of ASD as regards the disorder in itself, communication skills, spontaneous speech, verbal comprehension, attention, imitation, use of objects, self-care and symbolic play were significantly related to the severity of the disease. CONCLUSIONS: Diagnosis of ASD is still delayed in our population and usually after referral from someone other than a health professional. The most important problems were found in communication skills and relationships with peers. The study did not show significant associated risk factors.

Sleep evaluation scales and questionaries: a review.

INTRODUCTION: Whenever a new scale is created or translated from another language, it must be validated, establishing its reliability for the new population where it will be used. Sleep quality concept is a construct that can be evaluated using self-report scales. Resulting elements vary depending on the individuals surveyed. This type of evaluation is mainly subjective and includes quantitative aspects such as sleep duration, number of awakenings, latency time, and qualitative aspects such as rest sensation, mood and oneiric content (Valencia, 2000). In the present study we made a critical review of the sleep scales designed for child, adolescent and adult populations that have been validated and the difficulties they might present. METHODOLOGY: Between September 2005 and May 2006 a bibliographical search was made within Pubmed, Ovid and the data base of the periodical and book library of the Ramon de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, using and combining the following key words: sleep, sleep questionnaire, sleep scale, sleep inventory, adolescent, adolescent sleep scale. The most relevant papers to our study were selected. The search was limited to Spanish and English articles, although there was no year or geographical origin limit. Articles that did not include clinimetrical data where excluded. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our bibliographical search and our discussion, we suggested the design and validation of a Spanish scale to evaluate adolescent population which avoids a time interval between awakening and the answering of the instrument in order to decrease recall bias.

Escalas y cuestionarios para evaluar el sueño: una revisión / Sleep evaluation scales and questionaries: a review

Introducción. Cuando se elabora una escala o se traduce de otro idioma se debe validar y establecer la confiabilidad del instrumento para poblaciones donde se desea utilizar. El concepto de calidad del sueño es un constructo que puede ser evaluado mediante escalas de autoinforme. Los elementos resultantes varían según los individuos encuestados. Este tipo de evaluación es fundamentalmente subjetiva e incluye aspectos cuantitativos como la duración del sueño, el número de despertares, el tiempo de latencia y aspectos cualitativos como la sensación de descanso, el estado de ánimo o el contenido onírico. En el presente trabajo se hace una revisión crítica de las escalas de sueño diseñadas para población infantil, adolescentes y adultos que han sido validadas y las dificultades que pueden presentar. Metodología. Entre septiembre de 2005 y mayo de 2006 se realizó una búsqueda en pubmed, ovid y base de datos de la bibliohemeroteca del Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz utilizando y combinando las palabras clave: sleep, sleep questionnaire, sleep scale, sleep inventory, adolescent, adolescent sleep scale. De los artículos obtenidos se seleccionaron los más relevantes para el tema de interés. No se limitó la búsqueda por fecha de publicación, sólo se incluyeron artículos en inglés y en español; se incluyeron artículos que proporcionaban datos clinimétricos; sin embargo, esta circunstancia ha sido señalada en la presente revisión. Tampoco se excluyeron publicaciones por su origen geográfico. Conclusiones. Con base en la revisión y en la discusión sugerimos el diseño y validación de una escala en español para evaluar población adolescente y que además evite el intervalo de tiempo entre el despertar y el momento en que se contesta el instrumento con la finalidad de disminuir el sesgo de recuerdo (AU)

Introduction. Whenever a new scale is created or translated from another language, it must be validated, establishing its reliability for the new population where it will be used. Sleep quality concept is a construct that can be evaluated using self-report scales. Resulting elements vary depending on the individuals surveyed. This type of evaluation is mainly subjective and includes quantitative aspects such as sleep duration, number of awakenings, latency time, and qualitative aspects such as rest sensation, mood and oneiric content (Valencia, 2000). In the present study we made a critical review of the sleep scales designed for child, adolescent and adult populations that have been validated and the difficulties they might present. Methodology. Between September 2005 and May 2006 a bibliographical search was made within pubmed, ovid and the data base of the periodical and book library of the Ramon de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, using and combining the following keywords: sleep, sleep questionnaire, sleep scale, sleep inventory, adolescent, adolescent sleep scale. The most relevant papers to our study were selected. The search was limited to Spanish and English articles, although there was no year or geographical origin limit. Articles that did not include clinimetrical data where excluded. Conclusions. Based on our bibliographical search and our discussion, we suggested the design and validation of a Spanish scale to evaluate adolescent population which avoids a time interval between awakening and the answering of the instrument in order to decrease recall bias (AU)

Trastorno de Atención en las Escuelas Públicas de una localidad de Bogotá: percepción de los maestros / Attention deficit disorder in some public school of Bogotá: perception of teachers

Antecedentes: el trastorno por déficit de atención se diagnostica cada vez con mayor frecuencia en nuestro medio. Los únicos datos de prevalencia que se tienen en el país proceden de Antioquia pero se desconoce la frecuencia en otras regiones del país. Objetivo: evaluar la percepción de los maestros de escuelas de una localidad de Bogotá sobre la presencia del trastorno de atención en sus alumnos. Material y métodos: se realizaron conferencias magistrales sobre la evolución de la atención durante el desarrollo, las alteraciones que se presentan y se engloban en el término trastorno por déficit de atención y discusiones de grupo. Al finalizar se aplicó una encuesta de seis puntos desarrollados en formato de preguntas abiertas que estaban relacionadas con el número total de niños, la distribución por género y las características de la atención de aquellos que tenían a cargo Resultados. 58 maestros de 10 escuelas percibieron que 612 (31 por ciento) alumnos de preescolar y primaria tenían problemas de atención. La distribución por grados mostró un pico importante en el tercer grado. No hubo diferencias significativa en cuanto al género pero si respecto a la preferencia manual. Conclusión. Los datos recogidos demuestran una importante percepción de dificultades de atención en los niños que invita a una reflexión en relación a medidas de tipo pedagógico y de modulación de la conducta, así como a una búsqueda de tipo estadístico y etiológico formal

[Musical perception and cognitive functions. Is there such a thing as the Mozart effect?]. / Percepción musical y funciones cognitivas. Existe el efecto Mozart?

INTRODUCTION: Throughout the second half of the 20th century important advances were made in the study of neurobiology related to the processing of music, the differences and similarities between the neural pathways involved in language and in music, the role played by each hemisphere in recognising these stimuli, and the effects that exposure to certain specific pieces of music could have on the cognitive functions. DEVELOPMENT: The objective of this study is to review the literature concerning music and the central nervous system, bearing in mind the above-mentioned aspects. Likewise, we also wanted to analyse the reports referring to the Mozart effect and Tomatis, in addition to those dealing with formal musical education and its effects. The increased capacity to respond in visuospatial-type tasks after exposure to music by Mozart has triggered a commercial boom which makes use of isolated data, while the real extent of the effect remains unknown. CONCLUSIONS: After reviewing the scientific literature on this subject, it was found that the effects of exposure to music by Mozart (the 'Mozart effect') when they actually occurred, were limited to a specific skill that did not last for more than a few minutes. Formal musical education, on the other hand, shows more permanent positive effects but which can be attributed to the individual attention the pupil receives and to the stimulation in basic skills for general learning.

Percepción musical y funciones cognitivas. ¿Existe el efecto Mozart? / Musical perception and cognitive functions is there such a thing as the Mozart effect?

Introducción. En la segunda mitad del siglo XX se desarrolló de forma importante el estudio de la neurobiología relacionada con el procesamiento de la música, las diferencias y coincidencias de los circuitos neurales involucrados con el lenguaje y con la música, la participación de cada hemisferio en el reconocimiento de estos estímulos, y los efectos que en las funciones cognitivas pueda producir la exposición a ciertas piezas musicales específicas. Desarrollo. El objetivo del presente trabajo es revisar la bibliografía pertinente relacionada con la música y el sistema nervioso central, teniendo en cuenta los aspectos mencionados anteriormente; asimismo, analizar las publicaciones referidas al efecto Mozart y Tomatis y las relacionadas con la educación musical formal y sus efectos. El incremento en la capacidad de respuesta en tareas de tipo visuoespacial después de la exposición a música de Mozart ha desencadenado un auge comercial, en el cual se toman datos aislados y se desconocen los alcances reales que esta exposición tiene. Conclusiones. Tras revisar la literatura científica relacionada con el tema, se encontró que los efectos de la exposición a la música de Mozart (efecto Mozart), cuando se presentaron, se restringieron a una habilidad específica que no permaneció durante más de algunos minutos. La educación musical formal, por el contrario, muestra efectos positivos más permanentes, pero atribuibles a la atención individual que recibe el alumno y al estímulo en habilidades básicas para los aprendizajes generales (AU)

Introduction. Throughout the second half of the 20th century important advances were made in the study of neurobiology related to the processing of music, the differences and similarities between the neural pathways involved in language and in music, the role played by each hemisphere in recognising these stimuli, and the effects that exposure to certain specific pieces of music could have on the cognitive functions. Development. The objective of this study is to review the literature concerning music and the central nervous system, bearing in mind the above-mentioned aspects. Likewise, we also wanted to analyse the reports referring to the Mozart effect and Tomatis, in addition to those dealing with formal musical education and its effects. The increased capacity to respond in visuospatial-type tasks after exposure to music by Mozart has triggered a commercial boom which makes use of isolated data, while the real extent of the effect remains unknown. Conclusions. After reviewing the scientific literature on this subject, it was found that the effects of exposure to music by Mozart (the ‘Mozart effect’) when they actually occurred, were limited to a specific skill that did not last for more than a few minutes. Formal musical education, on the other hand, shows more permanent positive effects but which can be attributed to the individual attention the pupil receives and to the stimulation in basic skills for general learning (AU)